In-between animation overseas labor: where the work goes
Japanese studios have shipped in-between frames overseas since the late 1970s to meet episode volume and control costs.
Published: 2026-08-19. Updated: 2026-08-19.
Short answer: In-between animation, the stage that draws the frames between key poses, has been the most heavily outsourced part of anime production since Japan began systematic offshore animation work in the late 1970s and early 1980s. South Korea remains the largest destination by episode count, followed by China, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The work is usually contracted on a work-for-hire basis, meaning Japanese studios retain the IP and pay overseas studios a fixed fee. In Japan, JAniCA's 2023 survey found that dōga staff, which includes in-between animators, earned an average annual income of ¥2.63 million.
What in-between animation is
In-between animation fills the gaps between key drawings to create smooth motion. Kanzenshuu's Toei Animation production guide describes the in-between animator as tracing and cleaning up the lines of key frames, then drawing the missing frames based on the timing sheet provided by the key animator. The completed animation is then inspected and sent to the finishing department.
It is the most labor-intensive step in traditional animation. A single episode can require thousands of in-between frames, making it the natural stage to send offshore when domestic capacity is constrained.
History of overseas in-between work
Japan began systematic animation outsourcing in the late 1970s, with formal studio relationships established mainly between 1980 and 1983, according to Vitrina. Rising domestic wages and a near-doubling of annual TV anime episodes between 1977 and 1985 created production pressure that domestic labor could not meet at competitive cost.
South Korea became the first major offshore hub. Vitrina notes that the Korean Animation Producers Association estimated Korean studios were producing frames for over 80 percent of major Japanese TV anime series by the mid-1990s. The Philippines followed with a subsidiary model, including Toei Animation's Philippine production office and Fil-Cartoons. China entered meaningfully in the mid-1990s, and Vietnam and Indonesia have grown since the 2010s.
Current overseas landscape
Vitrina's 2024 industry analysis estimates current outsourcing share by country as follows: South Korea at roughly 38 percent, China at roughly 35 percent, the Philippines at roughly 10 percent, Vietnam at roughly 8 percent, and other Southeast Asian markets at roughly 9 percent. South Korea's share reflects decades of multi-decade relationships with Japanese studios, while China's growth accelerated after the 2000 to 2005 digital transition.
The Philippines' share fell after that transition because its studios were built around cel painting and physical cleanup. South Korea invested in digital infrastructure and retained its position, while China expanded with lower wages and government support for cultural industries.
Estimated share of Japanese animation outsourcing by country, 2024. Source: Vitrina analysis of AJA trade data and industry estimates.| Country | Estimated current share | Notable historical role |
|---|
| South Korea | ~38% | Largest hub since the 1980s |
| China | ~35% | Major growth after 2005 digital shift |
| Philippines | ~10% | Subsidiary model in cel era |
| Vietnam | ~8% | Digital work from the 2010s onward |
| Other Southeast Asia | ~9% | Thailand and Indonesia emerging |
Legal and labor structure
Most overseas in-between work is structured as subcontracting, not co-production. Vitrina explains that in classical subcontracting the Japanese studio retains 100 percent of the IP, controls creative decisions, and pays the offshore studio a work-for-hire fee. The offshore studio has no rights to the finished content and no downstream revenue participation.
This structure keeps low-IP-sensitivity work offshore while key animation and creative direction stay in Japan. Vitrina rates in-betweening as low in IP sensitivity and estimates it at 15 to 22 percent of a typical episode budget.
Domestic labor context for in-between animators
In Japan, in-between animators sit within the dōga staff category. JAniCA's 2023 survey, analyzed by Nippon.com, found that dōga staff earned an average annual income of ¥2.63 million. That is below the ¥4 million average for those involved in key animation and the ¥4.56 million average across all anime production workers surveyed.
Employment status has shifted over time. JAniCA's 2024 survey found that the share of freelance and self-employed animators dropped to 47.3 percent in 2023 from 69.6 percent in 2019, reflecting more permanent hiring at larger studios. Average working hours also fell to about 190 hours per month in 2024 from 262 hours in 2013.
Where public evidence stops
Public sources do not disclose the actual rates Japanese studios pay overseas contractors for in-between frames, nor do they provide verified headcounts for offshore in-between animators. Vitrina's country-share and budget-share figures are industry estimates, not audited financial data. The labor conditions of overseas in-between animators are even less documented than those of Japanese workers.
The available evidence confirms that in-between animation has been the core outsourced task for more than four decades, with South Korea and China as the dominant destinations. Beyond that, specific wage and contract terms are treated as commercial confidentialities by the studios involved.
No overseas wage data: This article does not estimate overseas in-between animator wages because no verified public source breaks out those rates. The ¥2.63 million figure applies to dōga staff in Japan, not to offshore workers.
Frequently asked questions
Why is in-between animation outsourced overseas?
It is the most labor-intensive animation stage and has lower IP sensitivity than key animation. Outsourcing lets Japanese studios meet episode volume while keeping creative direction at home.
Which countries handle the most anime in-between animation?
South Korea and China are the largest destinations, followed by Vietnam, the Philippines, and emerging Southeast Asian markets, according to Vitrina's 2024 analysis.
Do overseas studios own any of the anime they work on?
Usually no. Classical subcontracting means the Japanese studio retains full IP and pays a work-for-hire fee. Co-productions with shared IP are a different, less common arrangement.
How much do in-between animators earn in Japan?
JAniCA's 2023 survey found that dōga staff, which includes in-between animators, earned an average annual income of ¥2.63 million in Japan.